Source code for sherpa.astro.models

# coding: utf-8
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import numpy

from sherpa.models.basic import clean_kwargs1d, clean_kwargs2d
from sherpa.models.parameter import Parameter, tinyval
from sherpa.models.model import ArithmeticModel, RegriddableModel2D, RegriddableModel1D, modelCacher1d
from sherpa.astro.utils import apply_pileup
from sherpa.utils.err import ModelErr
from sherpa.utils import _guess_ampl_scale, bool_cast, get_fwhm, \
    get_peak, get_position, guess_amplitude, guess_amplitude2d, \
    guess_amplitude_at_ref, guess_fwhm, guess_position, \
    guess_radius, guess_reference, lgam, param_apply_limits

import sherpa.models._modelfcts
from . import _modelfcts

__all__ = ('Atten', 'BBody', 'BBodyFreq', 'Beta1D', 'BPL1D', 'Dered', 'Edge',
           'LineBroad', 'Lorentz1D', 'Voigt1D', 'PseudoVoigt1D', 'NormBeta1D', 'Schechter',
           'Beta2D', 'DeVaucouleurs2D', 'HubbleReynolds', 'Lorentz2D',
           'JDPileup', 'Sersic2D', 'Disk2D',
           'Shell2D')


[docs] class Atten(RegriddableModel1D): """Model the attenuation by the Inter-Stellar Medium (ISM). This model calculates the transmission of the interstellar medium using the description of the ISM absorption of [1]_. It includes neutral He autoionization features. Between 1.2398 and 43.655 Angstroms (i.e. in the 0.28-10 keV range) the model also accounts for metals as described in [2]_. It should only be used when the independent axis has units of Angstroms. Attributes ---------- hcol The column density of HI in atoms cm^-2. heiRatio The ratio of the HeI to HI column densities. heiiRatio The ratio of the HeII to HI column densities. Notes ----- The code uses the best available photoionization cross-sections to date from the atomic data literature and combines them in an arbitrary mixture of the three ionic species: HI, HeI, and HeII. This model provided courtesy of Pat Jelinsky. The grid version is evaluated by numerically intgerating the function over each bin using a non-adaptive Gauss-Kronrod scheme suited for smooth functions [3]_, falling over to a simple trapezoid scheme if this fails. References ---------- .. [1] Rumph, Bowyer, & Vennes 1994, AJ 107, 2108 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994AJ....107.2108R .. [2] Morrison & McCammon 1983, ApJ 270, 119 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983ApJ...270..119M .. [3] https://www.gnu.org/software/gsl/manual/html_node/QNG-non_002dadaptive-Gauss_002dKronrod-integration.html """ def __init__(self, name='atten'): self.hcol = Parameter(name, 'hcol', 1e+20, 1e+17, 1e+24, tinyval) self.heiRatio = Parameter(name, 'heiRatio', 0.1, 0, 1) self.heiiRatio = Parameter(name, 'heiiRatio', 0.01, 0, 1) ArithmeticModel.__init__(self, name, (self.hcol, self.heiRatio, self.heiiRatio))
[docs] @modelCacher1d def calc(self, p, *args, **kwargs): kwargs = clean_kwargs1d(self, kwargs) # atten should act like xsphabs, never integrate. kwargs['integrate'] = False return _modelfcts.atten(p, *args, **kwargs)
[docs] class BBody(RegriddableModel1D): """A one-dimensional Blackbody model. A model representing the ideal blackbody function. It can be used when the independent axis is in energy or wavelength space. Attributes ---------- space Switch to select whether the independent axis is energy or wavelength. This parameter is not fit (``alwaysfrozen`` is set), and should be set to either 0, when the independent axis is energy with units of keV, or 1 when the axis is wavelength with units of Angstrom. kT The temperature if the blackbody, in keV. ampl The amplitude of the blackbody component. See Also -------- BBodyFreq Notes ----- The blackbody emission is calculated as a function of energy using the expression:: f(E) = ampl * E^2 / (exp(E / kT) - 1) where E is the photon energy, and kT is the blackbody temperature (both in keV). The amplitude, ampl, is related to the ratio of source radius to distance by:: ampl = (2 * pi / (c^2 * h^3)) (R / d)^2 = 9.884 x 10^31 (R / d)^2 with Planck's constant (h) specified in keV-s and the speed of light (c) specified in cm/s, and with R and d representing the radius of, and distance to, the source respectively. There are two conditions when the above equation is not used: - if E/kt < 10^-4 then f(E) = ampl * E * kT - if E/kT > 60, f(E) = 0. """ def __init__(self, name='bbody'): self.space = Parameter(name, 'space', 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, '0 - energy | 1 - wave', alwaysfrozen=True) self.kT = Parameter(name, 'kT', 1, 0.1, 1000, 0, 1e+10, 'keV') self.ampl = Parameter(name, 'ampl', 1, 1e-20, 1e+20, 1e-20, 1e+20) ArithmeticModel.__init__(self, name, (self.space, self.kT, self.ampl))
[docs] def guess(self, dep, *args, **kwargs): if args[0][0] > args[0][-1]: self.space.val = 1 Emax = get_peak(dep, *args) tMax = Emax / 1.594 kt = {'val': tMax, 'min': tMax / _guess_ampl_scale, 'max': tMax * _guess_ampl_scale} param_apply_limits(kt, self.kt, **kwargs) norm = guess_amplitude(dep, *args) modampl = norm['val'] * (numpy.exp(Emax / tMax) - 1) / \ numpy.square(Emax) mod = {'val': modampl, 'min': modampl / _guess_ampl_scale, 'max': modampl * _guess_ampl_scale} param_apply_limits(mod, self.ampl, **kwargs)
[docs] @modelCacher1d def calc(self, p, *args, **kwargs): kwargs = clean_kwargs1d(self, kwargs) return _modelfcts.bbody(p, *args, **kwargs)
[docs] class BBodyFreq(RegriddableModel1D): """A one-dimensional Blackbody model (frequency). This model can be used when the independent axis is in frequency space. Attributes ---------- T The temperature if the blackbody, in Kelvin. ampl The amplitude of the blackbody component. See Also -------- BBody Notes ----- The blackbody emission is calculated as a function of frequency (v) using Wien's law (hv >> kT): f(v) = ampl * 2 * h * v^3 * exp(-h * v / (k * T)) / c^2 where T is the blackbody temperature in Kelvin, h is Planck's constant, k is Boltzmann's constant, and c the speed of light. """ def __init__(self, name='bbodyfreq'): self.T = Parameter(name, 'T', 1e+06, 1000, 1e+10, 1000, 1e+10) self.ampl = Parameter(name, 'ampl', 1, 0, hard_min=0) ArithmeticModel.__init__(self, name, (self.T, self.ampl))
[docs] def guess(self, dep, *args, **kwargs): vmax = get_peak(dep, *args) tMax = vmax / 5.88e+10 t = {'val': tMax, 'min': tMax / _guess_ampl_scale, 'max': tMax * _guess_ampl_scale} norm = guess_amplitude(dep, *args) c_cm = 2.99792458e+10 h_erg = 6.6260693e-27 factor = numpy.exp(2.82) * numpy.square(c_cm) / h_erg / 2. modampl = norm['val'] * factor / numpy.power(vmax, 3.) mod = {'val': modampl, 'min': modampl / _guess_ampl_scale, 'max': modampl * _guess_ampl_scale} param_apply_limits(mod, self.ampl, **kwargs) param_apply_limits(t, self.t, **kwargs)
[docs] @modelCacher1d def calc(self, p, *args, **kwargs): kwargs = clean_kwargs1d(self, kwargs) return _modelfcts.bbodyfreq(p, *args, **kwargs)
[docs] class Beta1D(RegriddableModel1D): """One-dimensional beta model function. The beta model is a Lorentz model with a varying power law. Attributes ---------- r0 The core radius. beta This parameter controls the slope of the profile at large radii. xpos The reference point of the profile. This is frozen by default. ampl The amplitude refers to the maximum value of the model, at x = xpos. See Also -------- Beta2D, Lorentz1D, NormBeta1D Notes ----- The functional form of the model for points is:: f(x) = ampl * (1 + ((x - xpos) / r0)^2)^(0.5 - 3 * beta) The grid version is evaluated by numerically intgerating the function over each bin using a non-adaptive Gauss-Kronrod scheme suited for smooth functions [1]_, falling over to a simple trapezoid scheme if this fails. References ---------- .. [1] https://www.gnu.org/software/gsl/manual/html_node/QNG-non_002dadaptive-Gauss_002dKronrod-integration.html """ def __init__(self, name='beta1d'): self.r0 = Parameter(name, 'r0', 1, tinyval, hard_min=tinyval) self.beta = Parameter(name, 'beta', 1, 1e-05, 10, 1e-05, 10) self.xpos = Parameter(name, 'xpos', 0, 0, frozen=True) self.ampl = Parameter(name, 'ampl', 1, 0) ArithmeticModel.__init__(self, name, (self.r0, self.beta, self.xpos, self.ampl))
[docs] def get_center(self): return (self.xpos.val,)
[docs] def set_center(self, xpos, *args, **kwargs): self.xpos.set(xpos)
[docs] def guess(self, dep, *args, **kwargs): pos = get_position(dep, *args) param_apply_limits(pos, self.xpos, **kwargs) ref = guess_reference(self.r0.min, self.r0.max, *args) param_apply_limits(ref, self.r0, **kwargs) norm = guess_amplitude_at_ref(self.r0.val, dep, *args) param_apply_limits(norm, self.ampl, **kwargs)
[docs] @modelCacher1d def calc(self, p, *args, **kwargs): kwargs = clean_kwargs1d(self, kwargs) return _modelfcts.beta1d(p, *args, **kwargs)
[docs] class BPL1D(RegriddableModel1D): """One-dimensional broken power-law function. Attributes ---------- gamma1 The slope of the power law below the break point. gamma2 The slope of the power law above the break point. eb The position of the break point. ref The reference position for the amplitude. ampl The amplitude, defined with respect to the reference position. See Also -------- Beta1D, Lorentz1D, NormBeta1D Notes ----- The functional form of the model for points is:: f(x) = ampl * (x / ref)^(-gamma1) x <= eb = ampl' * (x / ref)^(-gamma2) otherwise ampl' = ampl (eb / ref)^(gamma2 - gamma1) and for an integrated grid it is the integral of this over the bin. """ def __init__(self, name='bpl1d'): self.gamma1 = Parameter(name, 'gamma1', 0, -10, 10) self.gamma2 = Parameter(name, 'gamma2', 0, -10, 10) self.eb = Parameter(name, 'eb', 100, 0, 1000, 0) self.ref = Parameter(name, 'ref', 1, frozen=True) self.ampl = Parameter(name, 'ampl', 1, 1e-20) ArithmeticModel.__init__(self, name, (self.gamma1, self.gamma2, self.eb, self.ref, self.ampl))
[docs] def guess(self, dep, *args, **kwargs): pos = get_position(dep, *args) param_apply_limits(pos, self.eb, **kwargs) ref = guess_reference(self.ref.min, self.ref.max, *args) param_apply_limits(ref, self.ref, **kwargs) norm = guess_amplitude_at_ref(self.ref.val, dep, *args) param_apply_limits(norm, self.ampl, **kwargs)
[docs] @modelCacher1d def calc(self, p, *args, **kwargs): kwargs = clean_kwargs1d(self, kwargs) return _modelfcts.bpl1d(p, *args, **kwargs)
# TODO: what are the units of the independent axis: Angstrom?
[docs] class Dered(RegriddableModel1D): """A de-reddening model. De-reddening model applied multiplicatively to a spectrum. The integrate flag of this model should be set to False when used with an integrated grid. Attributes ---------- rv The ratio of total to selective extinction. nhgal The absorbing column density of H_gal in units of 10^20 cm^-2. Notes ----- This dereddening model uses the analytic formula for the mean extension law described in [1]_:: A(lambda) = E(B-V) * (a * rv + b) = 1.086 tau(lambda) where tau(lambda) is the wavelength-dependent optical depth:: I(lambda) = I(0) * exp(-tau(lambda)) and a and b are computed using wavelength-dependent formulae, which are not reproduced here, for the wavelength range 1000 Angstroms to 3.3 microns. The relationship between the color excess and the column density (nhgal) is [2]_:: E(B-V) = nhgal / 58.0 where the units of nhgal is 10^20 cm^-2. The value of the ratio of total to selective extinction, rv, is initially set to 3.1, the standard value for the diffuse ISM. The final model form is:: I(lambda) = I(0) exp(-nhgal * (a * ev + b) / (58.0 * 1.086) This model provided courtesy of Karl Forster. References ---------- .. [1] Cardelli, Clayton, & Mathis 1989, ApJ 345, 245 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989ApJ...345..245C .. [2] Bohlin, Savage, & Drake 1978, ApJ 224, 132 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978ApJ...224..132B """ def __init__(self, name='dered'): self.rv = Parameter(name, 'rv', 10, 1e-10, 1000, tinyval) self.nhgal = Parameter(name, 'nhgal', 1e-07, 1e-07, 100000) ArithmeticModel.__init__(self, name, (self.rv, self.nhgal))
[docs] @modelCacher1d def calc(self, p, *args, **kwargs): kwargs = clean_kwargs1d(self, kwargs) return _modelfcts.dered(p, *args, **kwargs)
[docs] class Edge(RegriddableModel1D): """Photoabsorption edge model. This model can be used when the independent axis is in energy or wavelength space. Attributes ---------- space Switch to select whether the independent axis is energy or wavelength. This parameter is not fit (``alwaysfrozen`` is set), and should be set to either 0, when the independent axis is energy with units of keV, or 1 when the axis is wavelength with units of Angstrom. thresh The edge position (in energy or wavelength units matching the data grid). abs The absorption coefficient. Notes ----- A phenomenological photoabsorption edge model as a function of energy:: f(x) = exp(-abs * (x / thresh)^-3) if x >= thresh = 1.0 otherwise or, as a function of wavelength:: f(x) = exp(-abs * (x / thresh)^3) if x <= thresh = 1.0 otherwise """ def __init__(self, name='edge'): self.space = Parameter(name, 'space', 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, '0 - energy | 1 - wave') self.thresh = Parameter(name, 'thresh', 1, 0, hard_min=0) self.abs = Parameter(name, 'abs', 1, 0) ArithmeticModel.__init__(self, name, (self.space, self.thresh, self.abs))
[docs] @modelCacher1d def calc(self, p, *args, **kwargs): kwargs = clean_kwargs1d(self, kwargs) return _modelfcts.edge(p, *args, **kwargs)
# DOC-NOTE: # The equation is different to the ahelp file, but matches the code # # DOC-TODO: # add note about integrated version # convince myself that it is doing something useful. #
[docs] class LineBroad(RegriddableModel1D): """A one-dimensional line-broadening profile. Attributes ---------- ampl The amplitude of the line. rest The rest wavelength. vsini The rotation velocity (v sin(i)), in km/s. Notes ----- The model is:: f(lambda) = 2 * ampl * c * sqrt(x) / (pi * rest * vsini) x = 1 - ((lambda - rest) * c / (rest * vsini))^2 """ def __init__(self, name='linebroad'): self.ampl = Parameter(name, 'ampl', 1, 0, hard_min=0) self.rest = Parameter(name, 'rest', 1000, tinyval, hard_min=tinyval) self.vsini = Parameter(name, 'vsini', tinyval, tinyval, hard_min=tinyval) ArithmeticModel.__init__(self, name, (self.ampl, self.rest, self.vsini))
[docs] def guess(self, dep, *args, **kwargs): ref = guess_reference(self.rest.min, self.rest.max, *args) param_apply_limits(ref, self.rest, **kwargs) norm = guess_amplitude_at_ref(self.rest.val, dep, *args) fwhm = get_fwhm(dep, *args) c_km = 2.99792458e+5 if self.rest.val != 0: vsini = 2. * fwhm * c_km / numpy.sqrt(3.) / self.rest.val vs = {'val': vsini, 'min': vsini / _guess_ampl_scale, 'max': vsini * _guess_ampl_scale} param_apply_limits(vs, self.vsini, **kwargs) modampl = norm['val'] * numpy.pi * self.vsini.val * \ self.rest.val / 2. / c_km mod = {'val': modampl, 'min': modampl / _guess_ampl_scale, 'max': modampl * _guess_ampl_scale} param_apply_limits(mod, self.ampl, **kwargs)
[docs] @modelCacher1d def calc(self, p, *args, **kwargs): kwargs = clean_kwargs1d(self, kwargs) return _modelfcts.linebroad(p, *args, **kwargs)
# DOC-NOTE: for some reason the division in the equation in the notes # section confuses sphinx (it thinks it is a section title). #
[docs] class Lorentz1D(RegriddableModel1D): """One-dimensional normalized Lorentz model function. Attributes ---------- fwhm The full-width half maximum of the line. pos The center of the line. ampl The amplitude refers to the integral of the model. See Also -------- Beta1D, NormBeta1D, NormGauss1D, Voigt1D Notes ----- The functional form of the model for points is:: f(x) = ampl * fwhm -------------------------------------- 2 * pi * (0.25 * fwhm^2 + (x - pos)^2) and for an integrated grid it is the integral of this over the bin. The area under the function as defined above is 1 if ampl is 1. """ def __init__(self, name='lorentz1d'): self.fwhm = Parameter(name, 'fwhm', 10, 0, hard_min=0) self.pos = Parameter(name, 'pos', 1) self.ampl = Parameter(name, 'ampl', 1) ArithmeticModel.__init__(self, name, (self.fwhm, self.pos, self.ampl))
[docs] def get_center(self): return (self.pos.val,)
[docs] def set_center(self, pos, *args, **kwargs): self.pos.set(pos)
[docs] def guess(self, dep, *args, **kwargs): pos = get_position(dep, *args) fwhm = guess_fwhm(dep, *args) param_apply_limits(pos, self.pos, **kwargs) param_apply_limits(fwhm, self.fwhm, **kwargs) norm = guess_amplitude(dep, *args) if fwhm != 10: aprime = norm['val'] * self.fwhm.val * numpy.pi / 2. ampl = {'val': aprime, 'min': aprime / _guess_ampl_scale, 'max': aprime * _guess_ampl_scale} param_apply_limits(ampl, self.ampl, **kwargs) else: param_apply_limits(norm, self.ampl, **kwargs)
[docs] @modelCacher1d def calc(self, p, *args, **kwargs): kwargs = clean_kwargs1d(self, kwargs) return _modelfcts.lorentz1d(p, *args, **kwargs)
[docs] class Voigt1D(RegriddableModel1D): """One dimensional Voigt profile. The Voigt profile is a convolution between a Gaussian distribution a Cauchy-Lorentz distribution [Voigt_1912]_, [wiki_voigt]_. It is often used in analyzing spectroscopy data. .. versionadded:: 4.12.2 Attributes ---------- fwhm_g The full-width half-maximum (FWHM) of the Gaussian distribution. fwhm_l The full-width half-maximum of the Lorentzian distribution. pos The center of the profile. ampl The amplitude of the profile. See Also -------- NormGauss1D, Lorentz1D, PseudoVoigt1D Notes ----- Following [wiki_voigt]_, the Voigt profile can be written as:: f(x) = ampl * Re[w(z)] / (sqrt(2 * PI) * sigma) where Re[w(z)] is the real part of the Faddeeva function [wiki_faddeeva]_ and sigma and gamma are parameters of the Gaussian and Lorentzian model respectively:: z = (x - pos + i * gamma) / (sqrt(2) * sigma) sigma = fhwm_g / sqrt(8 * log(2)) gamma = fwhm_l / 2 One common simplification is to tie the sigma and gamma parameters together, which can be achieved by linking the fwhm_l parameter to fwhm_g with the following equation:: fwhm_l = fwhm_g / sqrt(2 * log(2)) An approximation for the FWHM of the profile, taken from [wiki_voigt]_, is 0.5346 fwhm_l + sqrt(0.2166 fwhm_l^2 + fwhm_g^2) References ---------- .. [Voigt_1912] https://publikationen.badw.de/de/003395768 .. [wiki_voigt] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voigt_profile .. [wiki_faddeeva] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faddeeva_function Examples -------- Force the widths of the Gaussian and Lorentzian components to be the same: >>> mdl = Voigt1D() >>> mdl.fwhm_l = mdl.fwhm_g / np.sqrt(2 * np.log(2)) """ def __init__(self, name='voigt1d'): self.fwhm_g = Parameter(name, 'fwhm_g', 10, tinyval, hard_min=tinyval) self.fwhm_l = Parameter(name, 'fwhm_l', 10, 0, hard_min=0) self.pos = Parameter(name, 'pos', 0.0) self.ampl = Parameter(name, 'ampl', 1.0) ArithmeticModel.__init__(self, name, (self.fwhm_g, self.fwhm_l, self.pos, self.ampl)) return
[docs] def get_center(self): return (self.pos.val,)
[docs] def set_center(self, pos, *args, **kwargs): self.pos.set(pos)
[docs] def guess(self, dep, *args, **kwargs): """Guess the parameter values. The fwhm_g and fwhm_l parameters are set to the same value. """ pos = get_position(dep, *args) fwhm = guess_fwhm(dep, *args) param_apply_limits(pos, self.pos, **kwargs) param_apply_limits(fwhm, self.fwhm_g, **kwargs) param_apply_limits(fwhm, self.fwhm_l, **kwargs) # I am using an approximate conversion to get the # amplitude from guess_amplitude. The conversion # between height (as returned - roughly - by guess_amplitude) # and amplitude is, from lmfit # amplitude = height * (max(2.220446049250313e-16, sigma*sqrt(2*pi))))*wofz((1j*gamma)/(max(2.220446049250313e-16, sigma*sqrt(2))).real' # but I'm just going to use the lorentz1d amplitude guess # norm = guess_amplitude(dep, *args) aprime = norm['val'] * fwhm['val'] * numpy.pi / 2. ampl = {'val': aprime, 'min': aprime / _guess_ampl_scale, 'max': aprime * _guess_ampl_scale} param_apply_limits(ampl, self.ampl, **kwargs)
[docs] @modelCacher1d def calc(self, p, *args, **kwargs): kwargs = clean_kwargs1d(self, kwargs) return _modelfcts.wofz(p, *args, **kwargs)
[docs] class PseudoVoigt1D(RegriddableModel1D): """A weighted sum of a Gaussian and Lorentzian distribution. Unlike the Voigt1D model, which is a convolution between a Gaussian and Lorentz distribution, this approximates the Voigt profile with a linear combination of the two profiles [1]_. It is often used in spectroscopy. .. versionadded:: 4.12.2 Attributes ---------- frac The fraction of the model composed of the Gaussian profile (0 to 1). fwhm The full-width half-maximum (FWHM) of each component. pos The center of the profile. ampl The amplitude of the profile. See Also -------- NormGauss1D, Lorentz1D, Voigt1D Notes ----- The model can be written as:: f(x) = frac * g(x) + (1 - frac) * l(x) where g(x) and l(x) are NormGauss1D and Lorentz1D models with the fwhm, pos, and ampl values taken from this model. References ---------- .. [1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voigt_profile#Pseudo-Voigt_approximation """ def __init__(self, name='pseudovoigt1d'): self.frac = Parameter(name, 'frac', 0.5, 0, 1, hard_min=0, hard_max=1) self.fwhm = Parameter(name, 'fwhm', 10, tinyval, hard_min=tinyval) self.pos = Parameter(name, 'pos', 0.0) self.ampl = Parameter(name, 'ampl', 1.0) ArithmeticModel.__init__(self, name, (self.frac, self.fwhm, self.pos, self.ampl)) return
[docs] def get_center(self): return (self.pos.val,)
[docs] def set_center(self, pos, *args, **kwargs): self.pos.set(pos)
[docs] def guess(self, dep, *args, **kwargs): """Guess the parameter values. The frac parameter is set to 0.5. """ self.frac.set(0.5, min=0, max=1) pos = get_position(dep, *args) fwhm = guess_fwhm(dep, *args) param_apply_limits(pos, self.pos, **kwargs) param_apply_limits(fwhm, self.fwhm, **kwargs) # See Voigt1D for the amplitude guess # amplitude from guess_amplitude. although I've # added another factor of 1/2 # norm = guess_amplitude(dep, *args) aprime = norm['val'] * fwhm['val'] * numpy.pi / 4. ampl = {'val': aprime, 'min': aprime / _guess_ampl_scale, 'max': aprime * _guess_ampl_scale} param_apply_limits(ampl, self.ampl, **kwargs)
[docs] @modelCacher1d def calc(self, p, *args, **kwargs): kwargs = clean_kwargs1d(self, kwargs) frac = p[0] gmdl = sherpa.models._modelfcts.ngauss1d(p[1:], *args, **kwargs) lmdl = _modelfcts.lorentz1d(p[1:], *args, **kwargs) return frac * gmdl + (1 - frac) * lmdl
[docs] class NormBeta1D(RegriddableModel1D): """One-dimensional normalized beta model function. This is the same model as the ``Beta1D`` model but with a different slope parameter and normalisation. Attributes ---------- pos The center of the line. w The line width. alpha The slope of the profile at large radii. ampl The amplitude refers to the integral of the model. See Also -------- Beta1D, Lorentz1D Notes ----- The functional form of the model for points is:: f(x) = A * (1 + ((x - pos) / w)^2)^(-alpha) A = ampl / integral f(x) dx The grid version is evaluated by numerically intgerating the function over each bin using a non-adaptive Gauss-Kronrod scheme suited for smooth functions [1]_, falling over to a simple trapezoid scheme if this fails. References ---------- .. [1] https://www.gnu.org/software/gsl/manual/html_node/QNG-non_002dadaptive-Gauss_002dKronrod-integration.html """ def __init__(self, name='normbeta1d'): self.pos = Parameter(name, 'pos', 0) self.width = Parameter(name, 'width', 1, tinyval, hard_min=tinyval) self.index = Parameter(name, 'index', 2.5, 0.5, 1000, 0.5) self.ampl = Parameter(name, 'ampl', 1, 0) ArithmeticModel.__init__(self, name, (self.pos, self.width, self.index, self.ampl))
[docs] def get_center(self): return (self.pos.val,)
[docs] def set_center(self, pos, *args, **kwargs): self.pos.set(pos)
[docs] def guess(self, dep, *args, **kwargs): ampl = guess_amplitude(dep, *args) pos = get_position(dep, *args) fwhm = guess_fwhm(dep, *args) param_apply_limits(pos, self.pos, **kwargs) norm = fwhm['val'] * numpy.sqrt(numpy.pi) * \ numpy.exp(lgam(self.index.val - 0.5) - lgam(self.index.val)) for key in ampl.keys(): ampl[key] *= norm param_apply_limits(ampl, self.ampl, **kwargs)
[docs] @modelCacher1d def calc(self, p, *args, **kwargs): kwargs = clean_kwargs1d(self, kwargs) return _modelfcts.nbeta1d(p, *args, **kwargs)
[docs] class Schechter(RegriddableModel1D): """One-dimensional Schechter model function. This model is for integrated data grids only. Attributes ---------- alpha The slope of the power-law component. ref The reference position, which controls the switch from the power-law to the exponential. norm The normalisation of the model. Notes ----- The functional form of the model for grids is:: f(xlo,xhi) = norm * (xlo / ref)^alpha * exp(-xlo / ref) * (xhi - xlo) / ref and for points the model is:: f(x) = 0 """ def __init__(self, name='schechter'): self.alpha = Parameter(name, 'alpha', 10) self.ref = Parameter(name, 'ref', 1) self.norm = Parameter(name, 'norm', 1) ArithmeticModel.__init__(self, name, (self.alpha, self.ref, self.norm))
[docs] def guess(self, dep, *args, **kwargs): norm = guess_amplitude(dep, *args) param_apply_limits(norm, self.norm, **kwargs)
[docs] @modelCacher1d def calc(self, p, *args, **kwargs): if not self.integrate: raise ModelErr('alwaysint', self.name) kwargs = clean_kwargs1d(self, kwargs) return _modelfcts.schechter(p, *args, **kwargs)
[docs] class Beta2D(RegriddableModel2D): """Two-dimensional beta model function. The beta model is a Lorentz model with a varying power law. Attributes ---------- r0 The core radius. xpos X0 axis coordinate of the model center (position of the peak). ypos X1 axis coordinate of the model center (position of the peak). ellip The ellipticity of the model. theta The angle of the major axis. It is in radians, measured counter-clockwise from the X0 axis (i.e. the line X1=0). ampl The model value at the peak position (xpos, ypos). alpha The power-law slope of the profile at large radii. See Also -------- Beta1D, DeVaucouleurs2D, HubbleReynolds, Lorentz2D, Sersic2D Notes ----- The functional form of the model for points is:: f(x0,x1) = ampl * (1 + r(x0,x1)^2)^(-alpha) r(x0,x1)^2 = xoff(x0,x1)^2 * (1-ellip)^2 + yoff(x0,x1)^2 ------------------------------------------- r0^2 * (1-ellip)^2 xoff(x0,x1) = (x0 - xpos) * cos(theta) + (x1 - ypos) * sin(theta) yoff(x0,x1) = (x1 - ypos) * cos(theta) - (x0 - xpos) * sin(theta) The grid version is evaluated by adaptive multidimensional integration scheme on hypercubes using cubature rules, based on code from HIntLib ([1]_) and GSL ([2]_). References ---------- .. [1] HIntLib - High-dimensional Integration Library http://mint.sbg.ac.at/HIntLib/ .. [2] GSL - GNU Scientific Library http://www.gnu.org/software/gsl/ """ def __init__(self, name='beta2d'): self.r0 = Parameter(name, 'r0', 10, tinyval, hard_min=tinyval) self.xpos = Parameter(name, 'xpos', 0) self.ypos = Parameter(name, 'ypos', 0) self.ellip = Parameter(name, 'ellip', 0, 0, 0.999, 0, 0.9999, frozen=True) self.theta = Parameter(name, 'theta', 0, -2*numpy.pi, 2*numpy.pi, -2*numpy.pi, 4*numpy.pi, 'radians', True) self.ampl = Parameter(name, 'ampl', 1) self.alpha = Parameter(name, 'alpha', 1, -10, 10) ArithmeticModel.__init__(self, name, (self.r0, self.xpos, self.ypos, self.ellip, self.theta, self.ampl, self.alpha)) self.cache = 0
[docs] def get_center(self): return (self.xpos.val, self.ypos.val)
[docs] def set_center(self, xpos, ypos, *args, **kwargs): self.xpos.set(xpos) self.ypos.set(ypos)
[docs] def guess(self, dep, *args, **kwargs): xpos, ypos = guess_position(dep, *args) norm = guess_amplitude2d(dep, *args) rad = guess_radius(*args) param_apply_limits(xpos, self.xpos, **kwargs) param_apply_limits(ypos, self.ypos, **kwargs) param_apply_limits(norm, self.ampl, **kwargs) param_apply_limits(rad, self.r0, **kwargs)
[docs] def calc(self, p, *args, **kwargs): kwargs = clean_kwargs2d(self, kwargs) return _modelfcts.beta2d(p, *args, **kwargs)
[docs] class DeVaucouleurs2D(RegriddableModel2D): """Two-dimensional de Vaucouleurs model. A spatial de Vaucouleurs profile which is a formulation of the R^(1/4) law introduced by [1]_. It is a special case of the ``Sersic2D`` model with ``n=4``, as described in [2]_, [3]_, and [4]_. Attributes ---------- r0 The core radius. xpos The center of the model on the x0 axis. ypos The center of the model on the x1 axis. ellip The ellipticity of the model. theta The angle of the major axis. It is in radians, measured counter-clockwise from the X0 axis (i.e. the line X1=0). ampl The amplitude refers to the maximum peak of the model. See Also -------- Beta2D, HubbleReynolds, Lorentz2D, Sersic2D Notes ----- The model used is the same as the ``Sersic2D`` model with ``n=4``. References ---------- .. [1] de Vaucouleurs G., 1948, Ann. d'Astroph. 11, 247 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1948AnAp...11..247D .. [2] http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/March05/Graham/Graham2.html .. [3] Graham, A. & Driver, S., 2005, PASA, 22, 118 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005PASA...22..118G .. [4] Ciotti, L. & Bertin, G., A&A, 1999, 352, 447-451 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999A%26A...352..447C """ def __init__(self, name='devaucouleurs2d'): self.r0 = Parameter(name, 'r0', 10, 0, hard_min=0) self.xpos = Parameter(name, 'xpos', 0) self.ypos = Parameter(name, 'ypos', 0) self.ellip = Parameter(name, 'ellip', 0, 0, 0.999, 0, 0.9999) self.theta = Parameter(name, 'theta', 0, -2*numpy.pi, 2*numpy.pi, -2*numpy.pi, 4*numpy.pi, 'radians') self.ampl = Parameter(name, 'ampl', 1) ArithmeticModel.__init__(self, name, (self.r0, self.xpos, self.ypos, self.ellip, self.theta, self.ampl)) self.cache = 0
[docs] def get_center(self): return (self.xpos.val, self.ypos.val)
[docs] def set_center(self, xpos, ypos, *args, **kwargs): self.xpos.set(xpos) self.ypos.set(ypos)
[docs] def guess(self, dep, *args, **kwargs): xpos, ypos = guess_position(dep, *args) norm = guess_amplitude2d(dep, *args) rad = guess_radius(*args) param_apply_limits(xpos, self.xpos, **kwargs) param_apply_limits(ypos, self.ypos, **kwargs) param_apply_limits(norm, self.ampl, **kwargs) param_apply_limits(rad, self.r0, **kwargs)
[docs] def calc(self, p, *args, **kwargs): kwargs = clean_kwargs2d(self, kwargs) return _modelfcts.devau(p, *args, **kwargs)
[docs] class HubbleReynolds(RegriddableModel2D): """Two-dimensional Hubble-Reynolds model. Attributes ---------- r0 The core radius. xpos The center of the model on the x0 axis. ypos The center of the model on the x1 axis. ellip The ellipticity of the model. theta The angle of the major axis. It is in radians, measured counter-clockwise from the X0 axis (i.e. the line X1=0). ampl The amplitude refers to the maximum peak of the model. See Also -------- Beta2D, DeVaucouleurs2D, Lorentz2D, Sersic2D Notes ----- The functional form of the model for points is:: f(x0,x1) = ampl / (1 + r(x0,x1))^2 r(x0,x1)^2 = xoff(x0,x1)^2 * (1-ellip)^2 + yoff(x0,x1)^2 ------------------------------------------- r0^2 * (1-ellip)^2 xoff(x0,x1) = (x0 - xpos) * cos(theta) + (x1 - ypos) * sin(theta) yoff(x0,x1) = (x1 - ypos) * cos(theta) - (x0 - xpos) * sin(theta) The grid version is evaluated by adaptive multidimensional integration scheme on hypercubes using cubature rules, based on code from HIntLib ([1]_) and GSL ([2]_). References ---------- .. [1] HIntLib - High-dimensional Integration Library http://mint.sbg.ac.at/HIntLib/ .. [2] GSL - GNU Scientific Library http://www.gnu.org/software/gsl/ """ def __init__(self, name='hubblereynolds'): self.r0 = Parameter(name, 'r0', 10, 0, hard_min=0) self.xpos = Parameter(name, 'xpos', 0) self.ypos = Parameter(name, 'ypos', 0) self.ellip = Parameter(name, 'ellip', 0, 0, 0.999, 0, 0.9999) self.theta = Parameter(name, 'theta', 0, -2*numpy.pi, 2*numpy.pi, -2*numpy.pi, 4*numpy.pi, 'radians') self.ampl = Parameter(name, 'ampl', 1) ArithmeticModel.__init__(self, name, (self.r0, self.xpos, self.ypos, self.ellip, self.theta, self.ampl)) self.cache = 0
[docs] def get_center(self): return (self.xpos.val, self.ypos.val)
[docs] def set_center(self, xpos, ypos, *args, **kwargs): self.xpos.set(xpos) self.ypos.set(ypos)
[docs] def guess(self, dep, *args, **kwargs): xpos, ypos = guess_position(dep, *args) norm = guess_amplitude2d(dep, *args) rad = guess_radius(*args) param_apply_limits(xpos, self.xpos, **kwargs) param_apply_limits(ypos, self.ypos, **kwargs) param_apply_limits(norm, self.ampl, **kwargs) param_apply_limits(rad, self.r0, **kwargs)
[docs] def calc(self, p, *args, **kwargs): kwargs = clean_kwargs2d(self, kwargs) return _modelfcts.hr(p, *args, **kwargs)
[docs] class Lorentz2D(RegriddableModel2D): """Two-dimensional un-normalised Lorentz function. Attributes ---------- fwhm The full-width half maximum. xpos The center of the model on the x0 axis. ypos The center of the model on the x1 axis. ellip The ellipticity of the model. theta The angle of the major axis. It is in radians, measured counter-clockwise from the X0 axis (i.e. the line X1=0). ampl The amplitude refers to the maximum peak of the model. See Also -------- Beta1D, DeVaucouleurs2D, HubbleReynolds, Lorentz1D, Sersic2D Notes ----- The functional form of the model for points is:: f(x0,x1) = ampl / (1 + 4 * r(x0,x1)^2) r(x0,x1)^2 = xoff(x0,x1)^2 * (1-ellip)^2 + yoff(x0,x1)^2 ------------------------------------------- fwhm^2 * (1-ellip)^2 xoff(x0,x1) = (x0 - xpos) * cos(theta) + (x1 - ypos) * sin(theta) yoff(x0,x1) = (x1 - ypos) * cos(theta) - (x0 - xpos) * sin(theta) and for an integrated grid it is the integral of this over the bin. """ def __init__(self, name='lorentz2d'): self.fwhm = Parameter(name, 'fwhm', 10, tinyval, hard_min=tinyval) self.xpos = Parameter(name, 'xpos', 0) self.ypos = Parameter(name, 'ypos', 0) self.ellip = Parameter(name, 'ellip', 0, 0, 0.999, 0, 0.9999, frozen=True) self.theta = Parameter(name, 'theta', 0, -2*numpy.pi, 2*numpy.pi, -2*numpy.pi, 4*numpy.pi, 'radians', frozen=True) self.ampl = Parameter(name, 'ampl', 1) ArithmeticModel.__init__(self, name, (self.fwhm, self.xpos, self.ypos, self.ellip, self.theta, self.ampl)) self.cache = 0
[docs] def get_center(self): return (self.xpos.val, self.ypos.val)
[docs] def set_center(self, xpos, ypos, *args, **kwargs): self.xpos.set(xpos) self.ypos.set(ypos)
[docs] def guess(self, dep, *args, **kwargs): xpos, ypos = guess_position(dep, *args) norm = guess_amplitude2d(dep, *args) param_apply_limits(xpos, self.xpos, **kwargs) param_apply_limits(ypos, self.ypos, **kwargs) param_apply_limits(norm, self.ampl, **kwargs)
[docs] def calc(self, p, *args, **kwargs): kwargs = clean_kwargs2d(self, kwargs) return _modelfcts.lorentz2d(p, *args, **kwargs)
[docs] class JDPileup(RegriddableModel1D): """A CCD pileup model for the ACIS detectors on Chandra. This model is based on the work by John Davis ([1]_). It is intended only for modeling the pileup in one-dimensional spectra obtained in imaging mode (i.e. no grating data), but can be used with the zeroth-order spectrum of a grating data set. Attributes ---------- alpha The alpha parameter parameterizes "grade migration" in the detector and represents the fraction of piled-up events that result in a good grade. g0 The probabilty of assigning a grade of zero. This should remain frozen. f The fraction of flux falling into the pileup region. This should remain frozen. n The number of detection cells. This parameter can not be fit. ftime The frame time in seconds (as given by the ``EXPTIME`` keyword of the event file). This parameter can not be fit. fracexp The fractional exposure that the source experienced while dithering on the chip (as given by the ``FRACEXPO`` keyword in the ARF file). This parameter can not be fit. nterms The maximum number of photons considered for pileup in a single readout frame. This should not be changed from its default value of 30. This parameter can not be fit. Notes ----- As the pileup model is inherently non-linear, it is strongly advised that multiple optimization methods are used to thoroughly investigate the search space for the model. The alpha parameter should vary with photon energy and detector position, but for simplicity it is treated as independent of energy and location. An example of using this model to fit a Chandra spectrum is provided in [2]_. References ---------- .. [1] Davis, J, 2001, ApJ, 562, 575-582. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001ApJ...562..575D .. [2] "Using A Pileup Model", http://cxc.harvard.edu/sherpa/threads/pileup/ """ def __init__(self, name='jdpileup'): self.alpha = Parameter(name, 'alpha', 0.5, 0, 1, 0, 1) self.g0 = Parameter(name, 'g0', 1, tinyval, 1, tinyval, 1, frozen=True) self.f = Parameter(name, 'f', 0.95, 0.9, 1, 0, 1) self.n = Parameter(name, 'n', 1, tinyval, 100, tinyval, 2048, alwaysfrozen=True) self.ftime = Parameter(name, 'ftime', 3.241, tinyval, 5, tinyval, 100, 'sec', alwaysfrozen=True) self.fracexp = Parameter(name, 'fracexp', 0.987, 0, 1, 0, 1, alwaysfrozen=True) self.nterms = Parameter(name, 'nterms', 30, 1, 100, 1, 100, alwaysfrozen=True) self._results = None ArithmeticModel.__init__(self, name, (self.alpha, self.g0, self.f, self.n, self.ftime, self.fracexp, self.nterms)) def __str__(self): s = ArithmeticModel.__str__(self) if self._results is not None: pileup_fractions, integral_ae, num_terms = self._results sum = 0.0 if num_terms > 0: sum = pileup_fractions[1] sum_piled = pileup_fractions[2:num_terms + 1].sum() sum += sum_piled pn = numpy.exp(-integral_ae) s += '\n\n' for i in range(1, num_terms + 1): pn *= integral_ae / float(i) s += ' %d: %g %g\n' % (i, pn, pileup_fractions[i] / sum) s += ' *** pileup fraction: %g' % (sum_piled / sum) return s
[docs] def calc(self, p, arf_source, exposure_time, min_energy, max_energy, specresp, model): (alpha, g0, psf_frac, num_regions, frame_time, fracexpo, max_num_terms) = p out = apply_pileup(arf_source, exposure_time, int(max_num_terms), min_energy, max_energy, specresp, fracexpo, frame_time, alpha, g0, num_regions, psf_frac, model) self._results = out[1:] return out[0]
[docs] class Sersic2D(RegriddableModel2D): """Two-dimensional Sersic model. This is a generalization of the ``DeVaucouleurs2D`` model, in which the exponent ``n`` can vary ([1]_, [2]_, and [3]_). Attributes ---------- r0 The core radius. xpos The center of the model on the x0 axis. ypos The center of the model on the x1 axis. ellip The ellipticity of the model. theta The angle of the major axis. It is in radians, measured counter-clockwise from the X0 axis (i.e. the line X1=0). ampl The amplitude refers to the maximum peak of the model. n The Sersic index (n=4 replicates the ``DeVaucouleurs2D`` model). See Also -------- Beta2D, DeVaucouleurs2D, HubbleReynolds, Lorentz2D Notes ----- The functional form of the model for points is can be expressed as the following:: f(x0,x1) = ampl * exp(-b(n) * (r(x0,x1)^(1/n) - 1)) b(n) = 2 * n - 1 / 3 + 4 / (405 * n) + 46 / (25515 * n^2) r(x0,x1)^2 = xoff(x0,x1)^2 * (1-ellip)^2 + yoff(x0,x1)^2 ------------------------------------------- r0^2 * (1-ellip)^2 xoff(x0,x1) = (x0 - xpos) * cos(theta) + (x1 - ypos) * sin(theta) yoff(x0,x1) = (x1 - ypos) * cos(theta) - (x0 - xpos) * sin(theta) The grid version is evaluated by adaptive multidimensional integration scheme on hypercubes using cubature rules, based on code from HIntLib ([4]_) and GSL ([5]_). References ---------- .. [1] http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/March05/Graham/Graham2.html .. [2] Graham, A. & Driver, S., 2005, PASA, 22, 118 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005PASA...22..118G .. [3] Ciotti, L. & Bertin, G., A&A, 1999, 352, 447-451 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999A%26A...352..447C .. [4] HIntLib - High-dimensional Integration Library http://mint.sbg.ac.at/HIntLib/ .. [5] GSL - GNU Scientific Library http://www.gnu.org/software/gsl/ """ def __init__(self, name='sersic2d'): self.r0 = Parameter(name, 'r0', 10, 0, hard_min=0) self.xpos = Parameter(name, 'xpos', 0) self.ypos = Parameter(name, 'ypos', 0) self.ellip = Parameter(name, 'ellip', 0, 0, 0.999, 0, 0.9999) self.theta = Parameter(name, 'theta', 0, -2*numpy.pi, 2*numpy.pi, -2*numpy.pi, 4*numpy.pi, 'radians') self.ampl = Parameter(name, 'ampl', 1) self.n = Parameter(name, 'n', 1, .1, 10, 0.01, 100, frozen=True) ArithmeticModel.__init__(self, name, (self.r0, self.xpos, self.ypos, self.ellip, self.theta, self.ampl, self.n)) self.cache = 0
[docs] def get_center(self): return (self.xpos.val, self.ypos.val)
[docs] def set_center(self, xpos, ypos, *args, **kwargs): self.xpos.set(xpos) self.ypos.set(ypos)
[docs] def guess(self, dep, *args, **kwargs): xpos, ypos = guess_position(dep, *args) norm = guess_amplitude2d(dep, *args) rad = guess_radius(*args) param_apply_limits(xpos, self.xpos, **kwargs) param_apply_limits(ypos, self.ypos, **kwargs) param_apply_limits(norm, self.ampl, **kwargs) param_apply_limits(rad, self.r0, **kwargs)
[docs] def calc(self, p, *args, **kwargs): kwargs = clean_kwargs2d(self, kwargs) return _modelfcts.sersic(p, *args, **kwargs)
# ## disk2d and shell2d models # ## Contributed by Christoph Deil of the HESS project # ## Added to CIAO 4.6 for Dec. 2013 release SMD
[docs] class Disk2D(RegriddableModel2D): """Two-dimensional uniform disk model. Two-dimensional step function model consisting of a uniform intensity disk. Attributes ---------- xpos The center of the disk on the x0 axis. ypos The center of the disk on the x1 axis. ampl The amplitude of the signal within the disk. r0 The radius of the disk. See Also -------- Shell2D Notes ----- The functional form of the model for points is:: f(x0,x1) = ampl if (x0 - xpos)^2 + (x1 - ypos)^2 <= r0^2 = 0 otherwise For grids, the x0lo,x1lo values are used in the above equation. This model was provided by Christoph Deil. """ def __init__(self, name='disk2d'): self.xpos = Parameter(name, 'xpos', 0) # p[0] self.ypos = Parameter(name, 'ypos', 0) # p[1] self.ampl = Parameter(name, 'ampl', 1) # p[2] self.r0 = Parameter(name, 'r0', 1, 0) # p[3] ArithmeticModel.__init__(self, name, (self.xpos, self.ypos, self.ampl, self.r0))
[docs] def calc(self, p, x, y, *args, **kwargs): # Compute radii r2 = (x - p[0]) ** 2 + (y - p[1]) ** 2 # Return ampl when r2 <= r0 else return 0 return numpy.select([r2 <= p[3] ** 2], [p[2]])
# DOC-NOTE: TODO finish the functional form description
[docs] class Shell2D(RegriddableModel2D): """A homogenous spherical 3D shell projected onto 2D. Attributes ---------- xpos The center of the shell on the x0 axis. ypos The center of the shell on the x1 axis. ampl The amplitude. r0 The line-of-sight distance. width The width of the shell. See Also -------- Disk2D Notes ----- The functional form of the model for points is:: f(x0,x1) = ampl * r(x0,x1) = 0 otherwise r(x0,x1) = ? For grids, the x0lo,x1lo values are used in the above equation. It is not correct for very large shells on the sky. This model was provided by Christoph Deil. """ def __init__(self, name='shell2d'): self.xpos = Parameter(name, 'xpos', 0) # p[0] self.ypos = Parameter(name, 'ypos', 0) # p[1] self.ampl = Parameter(name, 'ampl', 1) # p[2] self.r0 = Parameter(name, 'r0', 1, 0) # p[3] self.width = Parameter(name, 'width', 0.1, 0) ArithmeticModel.__init__(self, name, (self.xpos, self.ypos, self.ampl, self.r0, self.width))
[docs] def calc(self, p, x, y, *args, **kwargs): """Homogeneously emitting spherical shell, projected along the z-direction (this is not 100% correct for very large shells on the sky). """ (xpos, ypos, ampl, r_0, width) = p r2 = (x - xpos) * (x - xpos) + (y - ypos) * (y - ypos) r_out = r_0 + width r_in2, r_out2 = r_0 * r_0, r_out * r_out # r_in3, r_out3 = r_in * r_in2, r_out * r_out2 # We only call abs() in sqrt() to avoid warning messages. sphere_out = numpy.sqrt(numpy.abs(r_out2 - r2)) sphere_in = numpy.sqrt(numpy.abs(r_in2 - r2)) # Note: for r > r_out 'numpy.select' fills automatically zeros! non_normalized = numpy.select([r2 <= r_in2, r2 <= r_out2], [sphere_out - sphere_in, sphere_out]) # Computed with Mathematica: integral = 2 * numpy.pi / 3 * (r_out ** 3 - r_0 ** 3) # integral = 1 return ampl * integral * non_normalized